![]() Specifically, non-believed memories are memories that can be vividly recollected but no longer believed ( Mazzoni et al., 2010 Otgaar et al., 2014b). It has also been suggested that falsely denying could create more non-believed memories than honesty ( Otgaar et al., 2016a). This pattern of results is defined as the denial-induced forgetting (DIF) effect ( Otgaar et al., 2016a, 2018 Romeo et al., 2019a). Interestingly, previous studies have reported that false denial also results in worse performance on source memory tests relative to honest responses, suggesting that participants who deceive lose more memories about what they lied about ( Otgaar et al., 2014a, 2016b). Studies using a between-subject design have also found that participants engaged in false denial make more omission errors than those who are truthful ( Otgaar et al., 2016a, 2018, 2020 Romeo et al., 2019a Battista et al., 2021a). In the first study of false denial, Vieira and Lane (2013), using a within-subject design, found false denial to cause poor memory of the studied items compared to telling the truth. Generally, there are three types of deceptive strategies: false denial (denying events or details of events that happened), feigning amnesia (claiming to lose memories of events or details of events that one truthfully remembers), and fabrication (fabricating events or details of events that did not happen) ( Otgaar and Baker, 2018). However, lying has consequences: liars’ memories may be affected by their lies ( Pickel, 2004).Įxtensive research has found that deception can undermine memory and has examined the effects of deception on memory as a function of the types of deception used. Moreover, victims of sexual abuse sometimes deny that the criminal act took place ( Otgaar et al., 2016a). ![]() Equally, some other offenders may come up with a fabricated version of their crime ( Riesthuis et al., 2020). Violent offenders often claim memory loss in an attempt to avoid legal responsibility or obstruct police investigations ( Cima et al., 2002 Jelicic, 2018). Lying also happens in some special situations. It has been suggested that lying occurs every day ( DePaulo et al., 1996 Riesthuis et al., 2021) and is essential for social interactions in daily life ( Abe, 2011). Lying, or deception, has been defined as a deliberate behavior that aims to give false information and induce false beliefs ( Hyman, 1989 Vrij, 2004). We conclude that more lies could result in more memory disruptions in daily life. In addition, participants in the mixed lying group had more non-believed memories than those in the truth-telling group in both item and source memory tests. Moreover, the mixed lying group retained fewer memories about the person they responded to than the honest group. We found that the mixed lying group, rather than the denying group, forgot the lies they told in the interview and mistakenly believed they had lied about something that they had not lied about. The item memory test, source memory test and destination memory test were given in an orderly manner 48 h after the interview. Thus, the denying group told five lies and the mixed lying group told ten lies in the interview. ![]() In answering the interview questions, the truth-telling group was asked to respond honestly, the denying group was asked to give denial responses, and the mixed lying group was asked to respond deceptively. During the interview, participants were asked whether each of ten items were on the shopping list, five of which were randomly selected from the shopping list, while the other five were not sold in the store. After finishing the shopping task, participants were told that two people wanted to know about their shopping lists and would ask them some questions in an interview. Participants were randomly assigned to truth-telling, denying or mixed lying conditions. We extended the investigation of the memory-undermining effect by using a daily life setting in which participants were highly involved in a mock shopping task. Previous studies have demonstrated that lying can undermine memory and that its memory-undermining effects could be modulated by the cognitive resources required to tell lies.
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